International Business Law, Go Essay Example For Students

International Business Law, Go Essay Carriage of Goods by Sea Transportation is a key element in todays business world. Along with the sale of goods one must ship them some how to the customer. In cases of international shipment there are many different rules and regulations that the shipper must follow in order to legally transport their goods. When a company ships their goods they generally ship by common carriers, in other words a carrier that transports more than parties goods. If however a party contracts to employ an entire vessel, then that is know as charterparty. The following paper focuses on the Common Carriage and aspects such as bill of lading, the carriers duties under a bill of lading, the carriers immunities, liability limit, time limitations, and third-party rights. A general ship or a common carrier is a vessel that the owner or operator willing carries goods for more than one person. There are three different types of common carriers. First is a conference line which is an association of seagoing carriers who have joined together to offer common freight rates. Those that chose to ship all or a large share of their cargo through this process receives a discounted rate. Second is an independent line, which is when the vessel has their own rate schedules. Generally, independent lines have a lower rate than that of the conference discounted price. Finally the third aspect of common carrier is tramp vessels which are similar to independent lines by the fact that they have their own rate schedule, but they differ from both in that they dont operate on established schedules. The next topic is the bill of lading, which is an instrument issued by an ocean carrier to a shipper that serves as a receipt of the contract of carriage, and as a document of title for the goods. The treaty that governs the bill of lading is the International Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules of Law Relating to Bills of Lading. It is also known as the 1921 Hague Rules and the Brussels convention of 1924. The Hague Rules were extensively revised in 1968 by a Brussels Protocol. The amended version is known as the Hague-Visby Rules. Most countries are a party to the 1921 Hague Rules, and a few have adopted that Hague-Visby amendments such as France and the United Kingdom. A bill of lading serves three purposes, First it is a carriers receipt for goods. Second it is evidence of a contract of carriage, and finally it is a document of title. This means that the person rightfully in possession fo the bill is entitled to possess, use, and dispose of the goods that the bill represents. One aspect of the bill of lading is that of the receipt for goods. A bill of lading must describe the goods put on board a carrier, and state the quantity and their condition. The process once goods are to be shipped goes as follows, first the form is filled out in advance by the shipper, then as the goods are loaded aboard the shop, the carriers tally clerk will check to see that the loaded goods comply with the goods listed. The carrier, however is only respnsible to check for outward compliance. If all appears correct the agent of the carrier will sign the bill and return it to the shipper. This process leading up to the bill called a clean bill of lading. If however a discrepancy is noted by the carriers clerk then a notation may be added to the bill of lading. This is called a claused bill of lading, which is a bill of lading indicating that some discrepancy exists between the goods loaded and the goods listed on the bill. These bills are normally unacceptable to third parties, including a buyer or the goods under a CIF contract or a bank which has agreed to pay the seller under a documentary credit on receipt of the bill of lading and other documents. Later notations will have no effect, and the bill will be treated as if it were clean. When using bill of lading your need to distinguish between two different types, the straight bill .

Macro Economics GDP

Question: Discuss about the Macro Economics GDP. Answer: Introduction: This report will analyse and evaluate the trends in Canadian GDP, factors affecting GDP of the country, its future prospects and impacts. Gross Domestic Product Gross domestic product (GDP) is defined as the monetary value of the final goods and services which are produced within a country's boundaries in a particular time period. Trends of Canadian GDP: (Source: Trading Economics, 2016) Interpretation: The above chart depicts that GDP of Canadian economy over the period of 2006 to 2015. GDP decreased in 2014 i.e. C $1785.39 as compared to 2012 and 2013. It indicates that GDP has declined as compared to the last two years. There are various factors, which affects the GDP such as interest rate, exchange rate, consumer confidence, foreign direct investment and banking sectors (Coyle, 2015). Factors affecting the GDP There are several factors that can influence the economic growth which are as followed: Interest Rates: Interest rate affects the GDP of the economy. The reason behind that is the current interest rate is 0.5% that is on the lower side. It indicates that spending power of people will be increased. Reason for that is consumers can get an easy loan from the bank at the low-interest rate. In consequence, customers increase their disposable income (Sachs, 2011). Furthermore, firms will increase their investment in the goods and services due to easily borrowed loan from the bank. Thus, it can be said that flow of money will be raised in the economy, which negative impacts on the value of money. As a result, inflation will be raised that will decline the GDP of the economy (Shah, et al., 2014). Consumer Confidence Consumer and business confidence is the important factor that influences the economic growth. For example; if the consumers are confident about the future growth then, they will be encouraged to borrow and spend more money. This leads to increase in the flow of money in the market. Thus, it can be said that it will have favorable impact upon the GDP of the economy. However, if they are pessimistic then, they will save and reduce spending. It will lead to decrease in the flow of money, so the economic growth will be unfavorably affected (Sachs, 2011). Foreign direct investment: It is explained that foreign direct investment also affects the GDP of the economy. Since when FDI declines; then it will decline the supply of money in the market. Hence, export will be competitive and import will be expensive due to decline in the investment. As a result, it will have negative impact on the growth rate of the economy (Jidoud, 2015). Exchange Rate: The exchange rate also affects the economy growth rate of the country. It is because; the current exchange rate is 1 CAD = US$ 0.774692 that is lower. Hence; it can be said that lower exchange rate declines the growth rate of the economy due to the decline of the money supply in the market. As a consequence, it is stated that declining exchange rate is the crucial factor that declines the GDP (Fukuda-Parr, et al., 2015). Banking Sector Banking sectors also influence the GDP of the economy. Because of this, bank declines their lending power due to the insufficient reserve fund. Hence; money flow will decline in the economy that creates a negative impact on the firms and consumers and also leads to decline in the investment and spending power. As a result, GDP of the country will be declined (Fan, et al., 2012). Future impact on the GDP: (Source: The World Bank, 2016) Interpretation: From the chart, it can be said that GDP of CAD (C$) is likely to increase in the future. As per the above forecast table, it can be said that existing GDP is C$1785 that will be increased C$2165 in 2020. Therefore, it can be said that some factors are affected by the GDP of the Canadian economy, which is discussed below: Value of Exchange Rate The value of Canadian dollar will be raised in the future due to more demand for Canadian dollar, which impacts on the growth rate of GDP of the Country. Furthermore, revenue generation from the exports would be increased and imports will be cheaper. Besides this, inflation will decline due to decrease in the value of money in the market. Consequently, it can be said that economic growth will be enhanced (Dobbs, et al., 2015). Interest rate: (Source: Trading Economics, 2016) From the above table, it can be said that interest rate will be increased from 0.5% to 2% due to increase in the money supply in the market. Thus, purchasing power will be reduced due to the increasing interest rate. As a result, GDP will be stable in the market (Coyle, 2015). Unemployment Rate: (Source: The World Bank, 2016) The unemployment rate will also influence the GDP of Canada economy. For example; the unemployment rate is 7.2% in 2016 that indicate the purchasing power of people will be reduced. This will lead to decrease in the money supply in the market. Simultaneously, the unemployment rate is expected to decline by 2020 i.e. 6.7%. As a result, it enhances the GDP of the Canadian economy (Acemoglu and Robinson, 2012). References Acemoglu, D. and Robinson, J. A. (2012). Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty. UK: Profile Books. Coyle, D. (2015). GDP: A Brief but Affectionate History. USA: Princeton University Press. Dobbs, R., Manyika, J. and Woetzel, J. (2015). No Ordinary Disruption: The Four Global Forces Breaking All the Trends. USA: Public Affairs. Fan, J. P., Titman, S. and Twite, G. (2012). An international comparison of capital structure and debt maturity choices.Journal of Financial and quantitative Analysis,47(01), 23-56. Fukuda-Parr, S., Remer, T. L. and Randolph, S. (2015). Fulfilling Social and Economic Rights. UK: Oxford University Press. Jidoud, A. (2015). Remittances and Macroeconomic Volatility in African Countries. USA: International Monetary Fund. Sachs, J. (2011). The End of Poverty: How We Can make it Happen in Our Lifetime. UK: Penguin. Shah, R., Gao, Z. and Mittal, H. (2014). Innovation, Entrepreneurship, and the Economy in the US, China, and India: Historical Perspectives and Future Trends. USA: Academic Press. The World Bank (2016). GDP. Retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG Trading Economics. (2016). Canada GDP. Retrieved From https://www.tradingeconomics.com/canada/gdp-growth

Mathematics, Jazz, Zen An Existential Ribbon in Balance free essay sample

Math and jazz are different. Contradicting sometimes, complementing sometimes,  ­always side by side, sometimes parallel, sometimes intersecting. Theyre both important to me, and I think their unique interaction has helped me discover who I am in a few short years of high school. Jazz is so free – creative, lyrical, pulsing, raw, human. Music is emotion, while math is abstraction. Mathematics takes all we know in life and then takes it away. If music is the most human of the arts, math is the least. Yet there is math in music, and music in math. In jazz, inspiration can come to any soul, but it takes a trained musician to liberate it from the heart and set it in the hearts of others. Ive struggled as a student of music theory to balance my expression with the necessities of formal structure. I think soloing on a chart is a good analogy for life. We will write a custom essay sample on Mathematics, Jazz, Zen: An Existential Ribbon in Balance or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I can have a million ideas, but only by training my mind can I put them in a form others can digest. Only by training my pen and sharpening my mind academically can I turn my thoughts into arguments, and turn my arguments into ideas that I hope could someday change the world. In math, the process of proof is similar. Its easy sometimes to see the answer, but it takes perseverance and training to derive it logically. Its not enough to feel the answer; you have to prove it. Its not enough to feel the music. You have to prove it. Theres a little bit of irony in all this. Ive recently become a fan of Zen philosophy, which maintains that we must cherish the contradictions and hypocrisies of life, rather than try to blindly â€Å"resolve† them. This translates into Zen meta-philosophy – studying the Way only brings us farther from it – and the resolution of meta-meta-philosophy – the farther from the Way we are, the closer we approach it. The endless contradictions eventually cancel out to a universal truth of sorts: its tough to get to Enlightenment, but by training your spirit you can try to pave the Way for it. Thats jazz, and thats mathematics. John Coltrane for a period of time was living on a farm to practice without interruption (not unlike some Zen monks!). He spent 14 hours a day locked in his room, playing sax. Certainly he had the heart of an artist and was able to express himself pretty well beforehand. But he knew you dont move the souls of an entire generation without a little more practice. Thats what I want my education to do for me. I want to change the world in some way someday, and I can do it by making the most of myself, the most of everything inside me. Though it seems silly and almost hypocritical to say that I can enhance the arts of music and mathematics with the sciences of knowledge and self-discipline, its no stranger than noting one must study to become a Zen monk. I love taking in every bit of knowledge I can, because I think the touchable knowledge of the real world will enhance my creativity and expression, the intangible, emotional things that are really the most human.

Ideology of Economic Discourse in Climate Change

Ideology of Economic Discourse in Climate Change Findings Section While developing a rhetorical genre-based approach to analyzing coalitions’ ideologies, it is imperative to define how specific social functions of environmental and economic views are realized in terms of discourse structure.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Ideology of Economic Discourse in Climate Change specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More At this point, the ideologies of a climate change advocators and climate change skeptics are disguised by rhetoric devices that serve to control certain social groups and make those groups act at economic and political levels. Analysis of Environmental Discourse Coalitions’ Ideologies in the Context of Their Rhetorical Writing The collected data presented below will define how rhetorical devices contribute to expressing ideologies of the two opposing coalitions and persuading different social groups to follow those ideologies. Specific emphasi s will be placed on how climate-change discourse provides the marginalization of a climate change, which is often defined by such metaphors as â€Å"death†, â€Å"holocaust†, or â€Å"threat† (Crist, 2007, p. 30). Ambivalent views on climate change issues will be presented to identify which side of debate is more persuasive and effective in communicating their ideas to society. Characteristics of Coalitions’ Ideologies with Regard to Definitions It has been previously defined that ideology is a set of thoughts and ideas that appeal to a specific social group. The beliefs, values, and arguments exposed by climate change activists are directly influenced by social interests. In this respect, the ideologies reflected in discursive claims of different collations are oriented on particular social groups that contribute to the debate. In addition to this, Adam Smith’s definition of ideology is also congruent with the above assumptions. In particular, the economist insists that ideology is â€Å"the combining of knowledge, beliefs and preference into a comprehensive but distorted perception, which helps cope with difficult and bewildering problems† (Aage, n. d. pp. 8-9). Relying on existing economic discourse, people shape their awareness and attitude toward the problem. Hence, some people are forced either to think over survival techniques, or to ignore the problem. This form of awareness leads to shifts in habitual limits of morality and rationality.Advertising Looking for research paper on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As a result, the so-called ideological bias is created with the help of such techniques as suppression, repetition, oversimplification, conciliation, and injection. These pillars are closely intertwined with such rhetorical devices as logos, pathos, and ethos. With regard to ideological definitions, it is purposeful t o define how authors apply to ideological standards to introduce their ideas to masses. While considering the supporters of climate change coalition, many authors often resort to neologisms and contemporary phrases to reveal that green economy is the future of prosperous development of the planet. In other words, they stick to one aspect of economic analysis, which meet their core beliefs and values. Similar approaches are used in the report presented by European Renewable Energy Council (n. d.) that introduces a metaphorical phase – â€Å"working for the climate†, that is reflected in other synonymous phrases as â€Å"renewable energy creates jobs†, â€Å"the energy revolution makes economic sense†, â€Å"strong policy boosts renewable energy†, or â€Å"jobs are diminishing in the coal sectors† (pp. 1-23). All these phrases reiterate the main scope of ideological influence – to present thoughts and concepts encouraged by social inter ests. The opponents of the climate change advocacy coalition also resort to identical techniques to enhance their position and increase number of supporting groups. For instance, Harvey (2011) resorts to repetitions of the word â€Å"skeptical† and â€Å"skepticism† while expressing his position about climate change in such phrases as â€Å"†¦first-hand weather experiences make Canadians skeptical about global warming†, and â€Å"that skepticism is being echoed in other parts of the world†. In this respect, the author provides the answer to the question in the title – Do People Still Care?. Avoidance and suppression is also reflected in neutral economic discourse by Harris, who, on the one hand, opposes to both sides of debates. On the other hand, his unique ideological representation aims at searching for the support on the part of advocacy coalition. By focusing on the actual matters of conflict between the two parties, Harris (2011) manages to attract attention of the target social group.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Ideology of Economic Discourse in Climate Change specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In other words, distorting the ideas of others and interpreting previously stated beliefs in another light are the main ideological approaches used by Harris (2011). Hence, the scientists states, â€Å"†¦scientific theories are never proven by show of hand anyways, no matter how scientifically esteemed those expressing their views are† and adds â€Å"†¦the Earth would still be considered flat and space travel impossible† (Harris, 2011, p. 4). Such digressions indicate authors’ idea about ambiguity of existing scientific investigations. Judging from the examined passages, most authors pay particular attention to discussing bias to attract the audience and make them think over the problem of climate change crisis. In addition, they use rhetoric devices to expose information about the most urgent and complicate issues through invented connotations and distortion. Rhetorical Writing Analysis of a ‘Climate Change Advocacy Discourse’ Coalition: Defining the Main Strategies While evaluating different rhetoric devices used to highlight the main ideologies of climate change advocacy coalition, several non-governmental organizations have been reviewed. Specific attention has been placed to the most urgent discussions in terms of economic framework of climate change discourse. More importantly, the assessed articles and reports have revealed that the economic dimension of climate change is premised on using such rhetoric devices as rhetoric questions, metaphors, classical rhetoric, and use of logos, pathos, and ethos. Because climate change advocacy coalitions focus basically on total re-evaluation of existing economic structure, with no reference to consequences, specific attention is place d to the future perspective analysis, as well as governmental strategies directed as untangling climate change crisis. To enlarge on this point, such organizations as David Suzuki foundation, Greenpeace, Frazer Institute, and the leading political newspapers refer to pathos and ethos, rhetoric argumentation, and invented connotations while describing â€Å"the new economy†.Advertising Looking for research paper on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For instance, Krugman (2010) refers to a realistic approach while describing the consequences of developing the traditional economic infrastructure. In particular, he states, â€Å"If we continue with business as usual†¦ we are facing a rise in global temperatures that will be little short of apocalyptic. And to avoid that apocalypse, we have to wean our economy from the use of fossil fuels, coal above all† (Krugman, 2010, n. p.). To persuade the readers of the writer’s awareness of the situation, the author digresses slightly from criticism and analyses the reverse side of the medal by introducing a rhetorical question: â€Å"is it possible to make drastic cuts in greenhouse-has emissions without destroying our economy?† (Krugman, 2010, n. p). In such a manner, the author shapes a solid basis for further debates on the topic to prove that a newly constructed â€Å"green† economy is a consistent, step-by-step policy that seeks to present a step forwa rd to a better future. To underscore the importance of introducing changes to economy, many activists place an emphasis on the tragedy of situation by using pathos. At this point, Shellenberger and Nordhaus declare â€Å"the death of environmentalism† because environment movement and its experienced representatives are unable to prevent â€Å"the world’s most serious ecological crisis† (Chirst, 2007. p. 31). As same as Krugman’s text is full of rhetorical questions, Cox (2009) also resorts to this device to highlight the economic discourse in climate change. At this point, all the questions presented in the passage closely relate to the problem of cost analysis and resources that people should invest to prevent such problem as greenhouse gas emissions. For instance, the author makes use of sub-heading in the form of rhetoric questions: â€Å"Public Policy Collision Course?†, â€Å"International Comrades in Arms.† There are also rhetoric ques tion in the text itself: â€Å"†¦it seems fair to ask what percentage of households in China, India, and other developing nations are prepared to pay anything. Cox’s article sounds like a calling for people to pay closer attention to the urgent problem. To intensify the discourse, the author also provides logos – numerical data that is represented in a comparison with real and predicted figures. Apparently, Cox (2009) intends to trigger the audience think about the scales of the problem and make them change their attitude to the climate change. Use of metaphors is the approach that is frequently used by policy-makers and environmentalists to attract the masses and trigger them to action. More importantly, the art of drawing the parallels through metaphors and expanding people’s imagination contributes greatly to developing sustainable and consistent ideologies that will have a potent impact on further development of economic strategies. At this point, Cris t (2007) exemplifies a number of environmental activists who apply to metaphors to strengthen their positions. Specifically, the author mentions Eugene Linden’s metaphor of the word â€Å"switch† to render the idea of the â€Å"tipping point†: â€Å"While we’ve tended to comfort ourselves by thinking that climate change is like turning a dial †¦ the reality is that shifts in climate are more like flicking a switch† (Crist, 2007, p. 31). In other words, the environmentalist calls for the necessity to resort to radical strategies while fighting with global warming and greenhouse effect. As described by Crist (2007), Ostling (2009), the representative of David Suzuki foundation, also clamors for a complete reevaluation of economic situation with regard to climate change. In this respect, he makes use of ethos while presenting the title of his post called B.C. Budget Maintains Core Climate Strategy, but Misses Opportunity to Invest in Green Econom y. By employing such a title, the activist intends to show the ignorance of the seriousness of the ecological problem and reluctance of the government to introduce the corresponding measures to the Canadian economy. Hence, he refers to the government commitment as to â€Å"missed opportunity to strongly position the province in the emerging green economy† (Ostling, 2009, n. p.). Additionally, exposing statistical data also allows the reader to understand the increased concern of the climate change advocacy coalition with the actual impacts of ignorance on ecological and economic problems. Deliberating further on the metaphorical meaning of title, attention should be paid to the one presented by Wood (2008). His title running as Liberals and Conservatives Offer Job Killing Climate Policies where the metaphor killing enhances the author’s attitude to government’s political platforms with regard to climate change crisis. Harris (2011) makes use of the metaphorical phrase â€Å"climate change bandwagon† while deliberating on the necessity to reconcile the climate change debate and provide resolution to existing conflict. Apart from abundant use of rhetorical questions, the author strengthens his writing with sophisticated metaphors and comparisons. At this point, authors appeals to such metaphors that serve to criticize governmental policy toward the climate change, as well as influence of this policy on people’s attitudes: If we are to quickly ‘expand the tent’ of supporters of realistic, science-based climate policies to include citizens of many different political persuasions, social philosophies and commercial interests, then logical fallacies and personal attacks on the integrity of our opponents must end ( Harris, 2011, p. 21). In such a way, the environmentalist states that scientific positions cannot be judged from false perspectives because this sphere of knowledge should always be congruent with objectivit y. Rhetorical Writing Analysis of a ‘Climate Crisis Skepticism’ Coalition: Defining The Main Strategies Harvey’s (2011) title runs, Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Canada: Do People Still Care?, which represents a skeptical article about the actual effectiveness of measures initiated by climate change advocators. The skepticism is especially revealed in the form of connotations and axioms delivering people’s genuine attitude toward the problem of global warming. Using references to reliable resources and respectable think tanks, the authors emphasizes the uselessness of strategies implemented by climate change activists. Adhering to the ideology ignorance, Harvey, apparently, wants to provoke the readers’ interest to his position and make them support the concepts and ideas he defends. Further, to define the economic implications, Harvey (2011) refers to the analysis of the Kyoto protocol by stating that its extension can cause signific ant disturbance among the Canadians. At this point, the Canadian government joined Russia and Japan in withdrawing the necessity to extend the international agreement. To highlight the position, Harper refers to arguments introduced by other leading politicians who recognize that â€Å"climate change is measured by centuries, not whether or not it rained on Victoria Day†. His skepticism is also presented in the following phrase: â€Å"†¦cooling and warming cycles are part of the earth normal pattern† (Harvey, 2011, n. p.). Many organizations whose major policies are directed at preventing the climate change crisis frequently resort to economic discourse to present a unique angle of their ideologies. In fact, their ideologies are more confined to attract people’s attention rather than to introduce effective strategies for fight with ecological disasters. Hence, while reviewing the main strategies and polices of the Global Warming Policies Foundation (2012) w ebsite, one can encounter the phrase â€Å"public trust is our most important asset† (n. p.). Judging from this, it is possible to assume that the organization is more concerned with public recognition rather than with solving the economic and ecological problems. Their economic concerns with climate change are of secondary importance. Much skepticism is revealed in The Wall Street Journal publication that expresses a rigid criticism of global warming concerns. Apparently, their ideologies are focused on maintaining the traditional structure of the economy because, according to their opinions, economic growth is hardly congruent with climate change policies. However, while conducting an in-depth analysis of ideologies presented in the newspaper article, it can be noticed that many authors apply to connotations, along with pathos, logos, and ethos to object to the scientific findings. In most of economic discourses on climate change apply to invented connotations of words and axioms to denounce scientific findings and impregnate controversial ideas to people’s minds. At this point, Clayton’s (2012) article appeals to ethos to persuade the audience that climate change advocacy policy can even be more harmful than the policy chosen by climate change skeptics. In particular, the author claims that use of alternative energy, such as wind, and sun power, can seriously influence climate both locally and globally. To enhance the position, Clayton (2012) refers to the latest scientific article to analyze the consequences and present ideas of recognized scientists: â€Å"Whatever you use energy for, it almost all ends up as a waste heat† (n. p.). To conclude the discussion and intensify its main idea, the authors applies to pathos while using such words as â€Å"scaremongering† and â€Å"accusation† while exemplifying one more scientific article. Within this context, Favate (2012) makes use of the â€Å"brewing† to emphas ize extreme imposition of public school of teaching about climate change as the main threat to the planet. While presenting two sides of the debate, the authors as if intend to show that climate change issue is on the current agenda overshadowing other, more important issues, such as poverty or unemployment rates. While resorting to the modes of persuasion in rhetoric writing to render economic aspects of climate change, the authors often refer to rhetoric argumentation rather than to other modes of persuasion. Nevertheless, some ideologists take advantage of this technique to attract the readers and support their position against introducing an ecologically predetermined economy. Specifically, Torello (2012) presents figures and charts disclosing budget that should be spent on delivering biofuels: â€Å"The â‚ ¬ 670 million ($ 850 million) investment by the state-controlled company in the plant †¦ aims at benefiting from European Union policies that seek to cut greenhouse- gas emissions from cars and trucks† (n. p.). Further, the author provides figures and percentages of prices of biofuels to prove that this kind of fuels is not profitable. To enhance the position, Favate (2012) applies to ethos while underlining perspectives of social development while introducing a â€Å"green† economy: â€Å"Europe’s squeezed consumers and taxpayers are paying the price for a flawed green policy that delivers no environmental benefits† (n. p.). Hence, the use of statistics is used to persuade the public that use of fuels does not provide benefits to either of spheres. In addition, considering pathos and ethos is also relevant to denounce the existing scientific findings. Discourse and Ideology: Representing Coalitions’ Ideologies as Special Forms of Social Cognition With regard to climate change discourse coalitions’ ideologies, the climate-change controversy is discovered as a system of autonomous political and economic sp heres. In other words, environmental issues are not discussed as separate notions, but as integral components of economics and politics. Through prism of economic analysis, coalitions’ ideologies aim at capturing social attention by their written discourses. Therefore, the impact of economic discourse on social cognition can contribute to shaping social perception of such problems as global warming and greenhouse effect. The collected data presented below will provide a better insight into social dimensions of economic discourse structures, as well as dynamic perspectives of developing economic discourse in environmentalist debates. Social Representation through Discourse Structures While considering the connection between ideologies of the climate change discourse coalitions and their written discourses, specific emphasis should be placed on aspects of discourses that share common social cognition. Judging from these conclusions, many authors establish preliminary internal s tructures and cognitive operations that can have a potent impact on social attitudes. While referring to social constructs and structures, Cox (2009) mentions how economic cost-benefit analysis can influence the marginalization of climate change crisis, which remains the most urgent topic for the world community. In addition, Cox (2009) mentions about financial issues of climate change strategies for the purpose of provoking societal interest to the environmental problem, as well as to readiness of the population to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In this respect, Cox (2009) emphasizes that 2 $ per ton is not enough for reducing emissions because â€Å"American households are simply not on the same â€Å"planet† with the radical change lobby† (n. p.). Apart from referring to financial issues, Cox attains the importance to economic discourse about environmental problems with regard to the world activities concerning gas emissions. Because many consumers all over the wo rld are concerned with economy to a much greater extent than with the climate change problems, the economic discourse in discussing gas emission threats can be an effective means of attracting attention of specific social groups. Similar to Cox’s position, who believes that highlighting economic and financial issues of climate change is much more effective than presenting ethical and ecological dimensions of the debate, Torello (2012), Krugman (2010), and Johal (2011) place a specific emphasis on logos to provoke interest of specific social groups. For instance, Johal, a climate change campaigner, presents a statement is fraught with numerical data: â€Å"The [National Roundtable on the Environment and Economy] calculates that the effects of climate change will cost the Canadian economy at least $ 5 billion a year by 2020, and between $ 21 billion and $ 43 billion year, or possibly more, by 2050† (Johal, 2011, n. p.). Such kinds of predictions foster further discussion s over the importance of economic discourses. Following the phrases, Johal (2011) strives to enhance the effect by stating, â€Å"The study only looked at a few categories of impacts† (n. d.). Climate change skepticism coalition applies to this approach as well by demonstrating the costs necessary for restructuring the traditional economy. Specifically, Torello (2012) exposes the prices on biofuel, which 1.5 higher than the price on traditional fuel. As supportive evidence, the skeptic mentions about decisions of the European Environmental Agency that questions the benefits of using biofuels. As a result, both sides of debates make a specific focus on consumerist tendencies and economic perspectives of social development to persuade the audience in their ideological position. Looking at Discourse Approaches from a Dynamic Perspective A rhetorical genre analysis viewed from a dynamic perspective contributes to understanding how various structural choices interact to meet the e stablished communicative goals of a genre. In this respect, the presented economic discourse in climate change coalitions provide an account on understanding the basic social and personal needs with regard to the current debates on environmental problems. Through economic and financial prism, both coalitions, first of all, refer to the problem of employment that would attract the target audience and make them think over the problem of global warming. In such a way, the ideologist benefits in both cases. Thus, environmental advocacy coalition refers to climate change economy through the perspective of effective job opportunities. In other words, it involves more social groups who are interested in getting new job and developing their professional skills. At it has been mentioned previously, European Renewable Energy Council (n. d.) takes advantage of the employment rate situation and introduces its environmental ideologies through creating new working space. Because job opportunities lead to improving the quality of life, Johal (2011) provides much concern with the ecological situation as the main reason for economic crisis. By focusing people’s attention on cost-and-benefit analysis of resources spent on gas emission reduction, the author plans to encourage people to invent strategies aimed at alleviating g the outcomes of carbon dioxide emissions: We can make a choice to take public transit, use renewable power, eat more responsible, get involved with others in our community who also want action and vote for government leaders who will invest in these solutions and make it easier for citizens and businesses to help fight climate change (Johal, 2011, n. p.). At a glance, the phase explicitly reveals the necessity of rational use of natural resources. However, the discourse contains important undercurrents and connotations presented between the lines that do not only enhance the pivotal phrases, but also impel people to be economically responsible. Addit ionally, the phrase creates an ideological bias, which is among the most common rhetoric approach used by coalitions. Harris (2011) also takes advantage of this approach while presenting his ideological standing. At this point, his views on use of energy with regard environment are extremely controversial. This is explicitly viewed from the article titles that do not actually reveal his apparent affiliation to either of coalitions: â€Å"Do experts really agree that we are causing a climate crisis?† (Harris, 2011, p. 4.). â€Å"Do scientific society open letters really say what we are told they?† (Harris, 2011, p. 10). â€Å"Politicizing the climate science debate has boosted alarmism† (Harris, 2011, p. 16). While looking closer at those titles, much attention should be paid to the terminology used in combination with metaphorical phrases. The disguised meaning is possible to uncover if the entire article is carefully considered. Understanding Environmental Disc ourse Coalitions’ Ideologies as Powerful Tools for ‘Ideological Production, Reproduction and Challenge’ While considering coalitions’ ideologies of as a set of beliefs shaping production, challenges, and reproduction, it is impossible to create those beliefs without identifying target groups. Being a type of social cognition, economic discourse represents practices of social groups through discourse. In this respect, ignoring social collectivities can prevent from delivering climate change concerns through economic discourse. Rhetorical writing, therefore, is primary focused on filling in the gaps between cognition, society and discourse. Judging from these assumptions, Krugman (2010) underscores the existing beliefs in attempt to present a new position based on existing knowledge. Making use of the power of argumentation, therefore, is the core techniques used by the author. Specific point of discussion is enhanced through the use of such words as â€Å" you†, â€Å"we†, and â€Å"us† that engages the reader unconsciously into the discussion: â€Å"†¦one you filter out the noise generated by special-interest groups, you discover that there is widespread agreement among environmental economists that market-based program to deal with†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Krugman, 2010, n. p.) All these phrases, however, are used to attract the attention and heighten the overall importance of the ideas. Further consideration of discourse proceeds with first person phrases uniting the accepted social beliefs and those provided by the author. The beliefs shared by the majority of social groups are also represented in the article by Cox (2009). Specifically, the author provides an detailed account on economic strategies of coping with climate change, but interferes the texts with personal metaphorical constructions, which can be noticed in the following passage: â€Å"The Waxman-Markey â€Å"cap-and-trade† bill still awaits con sideration by the US Senate, interest groups†¦.epitomized by the â€Å"Moving Cooler† coalition, but they are â€Å"low-balling† the costs of implementation†. Such additions as â€Å"cap and trade† and â€Å"low-balling† emphasize the presence of personal outlooks in the light of the generally accepted assumptions. As a result, the author tries to contras between the majority’s view and his own. Apparently, Cox (2009) attempts to highlight the parts that have been little discussed in the light of economic discourse. Using direct quotes from other sources is another approach by means of which the environmentalists strive to enhance credibility of information. This technique is particularly represented in the discourses by Harvey (2011), Harris (2011), Favate (2012), and Clayton (2012) who are more concerned with citing other credible resources and scientific findings to capture attention of concerned social groups. While assessing discour se as a form of social representation specific attention should also be paid to norms and values shared by the coalition. In this respect, the participants of the debates can be the ones supporting conservative views on solving the problem of climate changes and the one underscoring the liberal position while looking at environmental issues. It is logical to assume, therefore, that climate change advocacy coalition expresses a more liberal attitude toward shaping economic infrastructure whereas environmental skeptics stand for conventional underpinnings of the current economy. For instance, Torello (2012), as the brightest representative of conservative vision, expands on the negative consequences of introducing biofuel to the market. References Aage, H. (n. d.). Economic Ideology about the Environment. From Adam Smith to Bjorn Lomborg. Research Articles. Retrieved from: globalenvironment.it/aage.pdf Clayton, N. (2012). How Even Alternative Energy Could Threaten the Planet. Wall Str eet Journal. Retrieved from http://blogs.wsj.com/tech-europe/2012/01/31/how-even-alternative-energy-could-threaten-the-planet/?KEYWORDS=climate+change Cox, W. (2009). The Cost of Climate Change Strategies, Who Will Tell People?. Frontier Centre. Retrieved from: fcpp.org/publication.php/2928 Crist, E. (2007). Beyond the Climate Crisis: A Critique of Climate Change Discourse. Telos. 141, 29-55. European Renewable Energy Council (n. d.). Working for the Climate: Renewable Energy and the Green Job [R]evolution. Greenpeace. Retrieved from greenpeace.org/international/Global/international/planet-2/report/2009/9/working-for-the-climate.pdf Favate, S. (2012). Climate Change Debate Brewing in American Classrooms. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from http://blogs.wsj.com/law/2012/01/27/climate-change-debate-brewing-in-american-classrooms/?KEYWORDS=climate+change Global Warming Policy Foundation (2012). Who We Are. Retrieved from thegwpf.org/who-we-are/history-and-mission.html Harris, T. (2 011) Getting Society off the Climate Change Bandwagon. Frontier Centre for Public Policy, 102, pp.1-23. Retrieved from fcpp.org/files/1/PS102_CCBandwagon_F2.pdf Harvey, I. (2011). Climate Change, Greenhouse Emissions and Canada: Do People Still Care? Frontier Institute. Retrieved from fcpp.org/publication.php/3796 Johal, H. (2011). Climate Change: We Have a Choice. David Suzuki Foundation. Retrieved from: davidsuzuki.org/blogs/climate-blog/2011/10/climate-change-we-have-a-choice/ Krugman, P. (2010). Building a Green Economy. The New York Times. Retrieved from: nytimes.com/2010/04/11/magazine/11Economy-t.html?pagewanted=all Ostling, K. (2009). B. C. Budget Maintain Core Climate Strategy, but Misses Opportunity to Invest in Green Economy. David Suzuki Foundation. Retrieved from davidsuzuki.org/media/news/2009/02/bc-budget-maintains-core-climate-strategy-but-misses-opportunity-to-invest-in-gr/ Torello, A. (2012). As EU Ramps up Biofuels, Climate Debate Intensifies. The Wall Street Jour nal. Retrieved from: http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203806504577177723056373332.html?KEYWORDS=climate+change+economy Wood, J. (2008). Liberals and Conservatives Offer Job Killing Climate Policies. Fraser Institute, Retrieved from fraserinstitute.org/publicationdisplay.aspx?id=17456terms=%22climate+change%22

Kristin Decides to Try Her Hand at Investing Research Paper

Kristin Decides to Try Her Hand at Investing - Research Paper Example Younger persons also tend not to be responsible for dependents, large assets, and, in many cases of young professionals, their own health coverage. An older person, however, is by his or her nature more risk-adverse, since there is a more limited time span in which to make up potential losses due to investments. Consequently, investing is more confusing for the younger investor like, in this case, Kirstin who is a 26-year-old female potential manager. Although Kirstin has to build for the future by selecting more secure investment options, she should also try to maximize her gains by taking on more risk than the average investor did. This is not to say that Kirstin should become a gambler with her money on the stock market; rather, she should look to expand her capital in a safe, prudent manner. Regardless of an investor’s age or level of risk-aversion, one should always seek diversification as a first principle (Melicher & Norton, 2008, p. 8). Even though Kirstin does not hav e a large asset pool to pull from in terms of seeking out investments, she ought to seek out holdings in as many asset classes as she can. This means that spreading her assets between equities (blue chip and growth), bonds (corporate and municipal), cash equivalents, and commodities. Spreading assets around to the different classes means that Kirstin is hedging her risk against sharp declines in any of the specific categories, such that the other categories can support her portfolio in tough times. The majority of this portfolio must be concentrated in areas with highest growth potential, but diversifying between these instruments is a good strategy. If Kirsten decides to put most of her savings into blue chip or growth equities, she is likely to see a satisfactory return on her investment if the overall market is bullish or relatively stable. Depending on how long she expects to hold these investments, she may see a return on investment (ROI) at a percentage higher than any percent age offered by a corporate or municipal bond holder, or any cash equivalent offered by her local bank. Assuming that Kirsten’s idea of a â€Å"satisfactory return† is greater than the 3 percent interest paid by her bank for a Certificate of Deposit, then she is more likely to see desired returns if she invests in equities as opposed to other kinds of cash equivalents and bonds. Because Kirsten can be certain that her CD with her local bank is insured (that is, she cannot lose the principle amount, like she can with an equity or bond), she must be willing to accept only a return greater than 3 percent. Depending on the nature of the bonds Kirsten investigates, she is likely to find bonds that have greater than 3% interest. Especially corporate bonds of companies with lower credit ratings, which are consequently more risky, Kirsten could find rates of return nearing 10 percent. Kirsten’s decisions about where to put her money could be driven by any number of facto rs, including but not limited to tips from friends, independent research, consultations with financial planners, developments in the news, or developments in her own personal life (Lim, 2010, p. 19). Most likely, Kirsten will decide what to invest in based on her risk-aversion and the principles of good investing. As already discussed, the principle of diversification may draw her to look at both equities and bonds, in addition to the cash equivalent in which she plans to invest $3,000. In addition, Kirsten

My English Mastiff Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

My English Mastiff - Essay Example He is already eight years old and weighs approximately 160 pounds (72 kg.). He is 30 inches (76 cm.) tall. Ramzee’s outer coat is smooth, short and straight. His undercoat is dense and close lying. His coat color is golden fawn brindled with black around his eyes and extending up between them, over the muzzle, ears and nose. Like all English mastiffs, Ramzee is very powerful, massive and muscular. He has a large, heavy, square head with a short muzzle and distinctive dewlaps and flews. He has medium-sized ears that are pendant and falls just below his cheeks. His eyes are small and hazel in color. His teeth meet in a scissors bite. Ramzee’s tail is set high and curves down reaching to the hock. Although Ramzee’s size is over-powering, you can consider him a gentle giant. He rarely barks but he makes a good guard dog because his nature is to defend his territory and family. I did not need to train Ramzee because he is a natural guard dog. He is very friendly but w hen he senses I’m in danger, I can feel him becoming more watchful. I always bring Ramzee in public places, such as the park so as to prevent him from becoming aloof to strangers. He also gets along well with other dogs in our neighborhood. My young nieces love Ramzee because he is very playful, intelligent and calm. The only thing that my nieces do not like about Ramzee is that he drools a lot, like all other mastiffs. He also wheezes and snores loudly when he sleeps. Ramzee tends to be lazy at times so I see to it that I take him to regular daily walks after our dinner. His veterinarian also suggested these regular exercises so that he does not gain so much weight. Apparently, most mastiffs suffer from hip and joint problems when they become overweight. Let me describe to you now what a typical day is for Ramzee. Ramzee is my alarm clock. He wakes me up by licking my feet. He seems to have his own clock because he usually does this every 6:00am in the morning. His main reas on though for waking me up is because he wants to go out in the yard to pee. After allowing him to do his morning routine in our yard, I give him his breakfast which he eagerly awaits. I make sure that the dog food I give him is especially formulated for his breed which has the right combination of protein and fats. I give him three cups of dog food in the morning and another three cups for his dinner. He easily finishes his food within minutes. Later, you can see his bowl spic and span as if there was no food there minutes ago. After finishing his food, he drinks lots of water which makes him drool a lot too. I usually wipe the edges of his mouth to prevent those food debris sticking to my pants later on. After eating, he would once again go the yard to â€Å"empty† himself. Ramzee gets a bath once a month. I don’t give him a bath often because dogs have natural oils that keep their fur shiny and prevent their coats to become dry. Today is Ramzee’s bath day. Si nce bathing is quite a chore for a mastiff because of its size, I take Ramzee to the groomer. His groomer gives him a bath and a flea and tick dip. His nails are then trimmed and his ears are cleaned. His eyes are also wiped to prevent the build-up of dirt that might lead to eye infection. The groomer then brushes his teeth with toothpaste. Ramzee likes the taste of toothpaste but it makes him drool more. During this grooming time, Ramzee remains very calm and he seems to be enjoying every moment of it. But I think his favorite part is the combing of his coat. I know he likes it so much because I see him closing his eyes, almost falling asleep. After the trip to the groomer, Ramzee and I go back home. Tired from the car trip, Ramzee goes over to his bed and falls asleep easily. While I am taking my lunch, I

Plants in Production of Recombinant Antibodies

Plants in Production of Recombinant Antibodies Shirin Bagherihanaei A discussion of the techniques, advantages and disadvantages of the use of plants in production of recombinant antibodies for research and therapeutic use with named examples. Introduction   Ã‚   Application of plant for medical proposes goes back to thousand years ago. Our ancestors use plants and extract its beneficial substance to cure different illnesses and relief pain. This idea is continued with us and today we can manipulate the genetic information of plants to make them suitable for the production of recombinant protein and biopharmaceutical medicinal purposes [1]. Since the first generation of recombinant protein from tobacco cell culture, a variety of pharmaceutical products have been introduced such as vaccines, hormones, antibody, growth factors, and cytokines [1,4,9]. However, AB is the most common recombinant protein which is generated by plants and it has been called plantibody. Nowadays the development and the use of transgenic plants for production of recombinant ABs is an attractive subject among scientists because plants are easy to work with and also the cost of the production is considerably low. It is also beneficial because of the large-scale productio n [1]. Production of high quality recombinant protein for research and therapeutic purposes from mammalian are quite expensive, therefore the idea of producing recombinant protein in transgenic animals and plants has formed recently [1]. In this essay, I try to summarise and highlight some of the most cutting-edge techniques in the use of transgenic plants for production of recombinant protein and antibody. I also discuss their advantages and disadvantages with the utilization of plants to produce antibody. Plantibody Plantibody made up of two words: plant and antibody. It means plantibody is an AB that is generated from plants. Antibody is a glycoprotein which mainly made by plasma cells and used by the immune system to neutralize any kind of foreign molecules inside the body such as bacteria and virus. Plantibody has this property to recognize and bind to its specific antigen. It can be generated from tobacco, rice cells culture, Lemna minor (duckweed), Arabidopsis thaliana seeds, Medicago Sativa (alfalfa), lettuce and maize [2] but tobacco is the most common source due to its high leaf biomass yield [3]. According to a report, recombinant protein level in tobacco stem is the same as this level in its leaf. That means to produce recombinant therapeutic protein, the whole plant biomass can be used [3]. Another advantage of tobacco is that it is not edible and this aspect of tobacco reduce biosafety concern but it contains toxic alkaloid and the plant should be purified from the toxic chemicals [3]. As tobacco is not an edible source, regulatory issue for production of recombinant protein is less controversial than food crops such as rice, soy bean and corn. Chinese cabbage has the highest amount of soluble protein among plants. Production Techniques Production of the recombinant protein includes utilizing the whole plant or plant cell culture in vitro [9]. The disadvantages of using the whole plant for production of recombinant AB are: time-consuming generation of transgenic plants, the risk of contamination with fertiliser, unstable quality and yield of the products, applying good manufacturing practice (GMP) to the whole-plant production pipeline [9]. Plant cell suspension culture has the benefits of both mammalian cell culture and whole plants. Undifferentiated plant calli can be developed under a proper condition in the liquid media environment and produce cell suspension culture. Plant cell culture can generate proteins which are more similar to human generated proteins. They can also grow rapidly in a simple media same as bacteria. Plants are eukaryote so they have fairly similar post-transitional modifications such as glycosylation that happen in human cells [9]. Glycosylation is an enzymatic process that glycan adds to o rganic molecules such as lipids and proteins. Correct pattern of protein folding is also essential for recombinant protein to function [1]. It is interesting to note that plant suspension cell culture lack fully functional plasmodesmata, therefore, systemic post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) may be reduced because PTGS is transmitted through plasmodesmata and the vascular system [9]. Generally, three different methods are applied in the production of recombinant AB in plants: Agroinfiltration with recombinant agrobacteria, particle bombardment technology and Infection with modified viral vector [8,14]. The general technique for the production of genetically modified plants is agrobacterium-mediated transformation [2]. Agrobacterium Tumefaciens is a gram negative bacteria which is the cause of crown gall disease in plants [14]. These bacteria live in soil and attract to the plants with wounded parts. However, scientists use this bacteria as a tool for research and therapeutic purposes by introducing the gene with desired properties into the plant cells in plant genetic engineering. The gene of interest can be inserted into Ti plasmid (tumor inducing) then injected into the plants as a host. Plant cell divide out of control and the gene of interest proliferate as well [14]. There is a selectable marker on the T-DNA which is transferred into the host cells therefore it is possible to control if the gene is transferred successfully or not [2]. There are two transformation strategies for generation of recombinant antibody, Stable and transient expression. Stable expression is the stably insertion of cDNA encoding both heavy and light chains of AB into the genome of plants. The gene can be introduced into the chloroplast genome to produce chloroplast transgenic plants which can generate AB with correct folding and disulfide bonds. Some example of the transient expression is agroinfiltration and recombinant plant viruses for the production of antibody [3]. Agroinfiltration system has been used to produce multi-antennary N-glycan that mostly seen in mammalian derived glycoproteins [3]. Transient expressionmethod is fast and convenient for the production of recombinant antibody without generation of transgenic plant. The generation of transient expression is the precondition to stable transformation because it can test expression vectors and protein stability and also it is able to recognize any problem that may have happened [ 8]. Transient expression is better for low scale yield protein production yet transgenic plant are better approach for high yield production and also gives a better expression levels [7]. An important point to note is if the expression is targeted to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), this results in higher yield [7]. Another approach for the insertion the gene of interest into the plant tissue is particle bombardment technology. The main idea of this technique is some microscopic golden bullet or tungsten bullet covered by the gene of interest. These particles are fired into the plant leaf. This technique used for all type of plants. The golden bullet preferably used because the tungsten bullets have the risk of toxicity for the plants. Then the bullet is placed at the end of plastic bullets and shoot with blasts of air or helium. There is a plastic mesh work shop on the way of the bullets which guide the bullet to move forward. An alternative technique used for this approach which can accelerate the beads with strong electrical discharge which results in a controlled penetration of beads into the plant tissue. After penetration of the DNA dissolved into the cytoplasm of the leaf, the gene of interest can recombine with the chromosome of a plant. Finally, the leaf is transferred to media and let it grow and regenerated using tissue culture [8,11]. This technique does not use a lot due to its high cost and also as this method is physical so the insertion of the gene which is performed by gene gun may cause damage to plant without transferring the genetic material inside the plant and dose not give the precise or desirable results [14]. Production of ab transgenic plants can be generated by viral vectors. However low infectivity with this vectors needs to be considered as an obstacle [2]. One of the disadvantages of viral plant system is the injection of vector to leaf or stem every time which can result in gene mutation during replication of the virus. But we dont face this problem in transgenic stable expression. Therefore, it is extremely important to choose the proper protocol for gene ex pression [3]. Advantages and Disadvantages Plants paly an important role as a bioreactor for production of recombinant protein. Basically, the common systems use for the production of recombinant proteins is the manipulation of mammalian cells, bacterial systems, yeast and etc. However, recently due to some negative aspects of these systems many scientists prefer to work and study plant sources which have those benefits that they are looking for. There are several important benefits with the production of recombinant AB from plants. Firstly, is the large scale of production from cheap raw materials and the reduction of costs in comparison with other techniques of recombinant AB production such as yeast, mammalian and etc. [3,5]. Another advantage of using plants for production of AB is the flexibility of working with plants as it can be used both in vivo and in vitro [3]. In addition, introducing new transgenic plants is possible by sexual crosses and they are quite easy to work with. There is a very low risk of contamination by mammalian viruses when AB is generated from plants [5]. Another advantage is correct folding and assembly of produced AB for both single stranded peptides and multimeric protein with full size. Recombinant protein which generated from edible sources does not require purification. In terms of storage the enzymes which are produced by plants can be formulated to the seeds, so under the suitable condition they can be stored for long period of time and it is also possible to transport them to different locations easily. Plantibody have both avidity and affinity towards its specific antigen and its characteristics maintain the same after purification [1]. Although plants have lots of benefits but it is not 100% perfect source for production of antibody [3]. The most important disadvantage is the fact that Plant N-glycosylation is different from human and mammalian glycosylation. Another negative point is that plants has shown discrete yields due to low gene expression level [7]. There is also the problem with causing allergic and immunogenic reactions in humans, which is because of the difference in glycosylation pattern in humans and plant [7]. Moreover, there are some concerns regarding the activity of proteolytic degradation, which might influence fully assembled IgG that is secreted in the culture media [9]. Production of mycotoxin by impurities, limitation which caused by the environmental condition, and the possibilities of herbicides presence in the product are some other negative aspect of transgenic plants [1]. The controversy about plantibody generation is the presence of gene segments or marker segments in the produced drug and its effect on human body and the probability of allergic reaction to plant glycoprotein [1]. Although there are some disadvantages with the use of transgenic animals such as the risk of contamination of protein with animal viruses and also it takes a long time to produce recombinant protein from transgenic animals but, many biotechnologists prefer to produce AB from mammalian cell lines because the final ABs have a correct glycosylation pattern and protein folding [1]. Plant Antibody Application The extracted AB from plants can be used for many different purposes such as vaccine production, clinical diagnosis protein, pharmaceutical and industrial proteins, biopolymer, biodiesel, food industry, tools for research, and diagnosis tool for chromatography and other immunoassays [1]. The application of AB in research is extremely wide, because of their transferability with the metabolic process in organism [1]. Protein pharmaceutical products are one of the most expensive and important products that human has managed to synthesis them in ways other than natural methods. In recent years, mAB has had an important role in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer-related research [3,12]. Each mAB influence cancer cells in 3 ways: it can signal to the immune system to kill cancerous cells, it can prevent the division of cancer cells or deliver drug to these cells [3]. mAB can attack tumour cells by complement system in cytotoxic reactions through complement system. They bound to the tumor cells which prevent tumor growth and finally result in apoptosis [3]. The ability of AB to prevent the pathogens and tumor cells is due to the affinity of the variable binding sites. This affinity of AB could have enhanced by modifying glycon structure and glycosylation patterns [3]. As we see mAB have many positive aspects for prevention of cancer but their application is not common which is duo to the risk of contamination with human pathogens, high cost and proliferation inability. However, these problems have been eliminated by the production of mAB from other bio-organism like bacteria, yeasts, insects, and plants [3]. The monoclonal AB expressed in plants by tobacco mosaic viru s vectors [3]. Nimotozomab is a humanized anti-epidermal growth factor receptor recombinant AB which is produced in animal cell culture. This AB is used for treatment of different carcinoma cells. It seems that a mutation in the N297 position in the IgG1 FC region of this AB and apply it in a transgenic plant which result in producing a form of nomotozomab that is similar to mammalian-cell-produced AB. It also has the property to block the EGFR interaction and have antitumor effects [5,7]. Nicotiana tabacum were transformed by A.tumefaction-mediated gene transfer method. In order to infect the plant cells, recombinant pDEGF-R Agbacterium bearing the binary vector was applied [5,7]. According to experiments the mAB which was generated in plants was as effective as the one which was generated in mammalian (nude mice). In another experiment marine, mAB could prevent Brest cancer cell growth and mAB was generated from transgenic tobacco plant which had the same function as the murine mAB. Therefore, pl ants such as tobacco can produce two different mAB which can target two different types of cancer cells [3]. The most frequently chosen host cell lines used for recombinant protein expression are Tobacco BY-2 (Bright yellow-2) and NT-1 (Nicotiana tabacum-1) cells [9]. Generally, IgA, IgG and IgM are generated from plants. IgA and IgM have the potential for commercial production. They attach antigens in the first line defence at gastrointestinal mucosal surface, tears, saliva and milk [14]. IgG and IgA have been introduced in Nicotiana, Arabidopsis. Plantibody have a high level of safety which rise the interest for production of mAB from plant Examples include the Guys 13 IgG1 (Fischer et al., 1999b; Sharp and Doran, 2001a, 2001b), a human mAB against hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HBsAg) (Yano et al., 2004), a human anti-rabies virus mAB (Girard et al., 2006), and most recently a human anti-HIV mAB (Holland et al., 2010) all of which have been reported to be expressed in tobacco cell suspension cultures [9]. Lots of effort have been done for production of these ABs in large scale but none of them sell in the market due to the high cost. Nonetheless, two plantibody is used in clinical CAROX which was expressed in transgenic tobacco that takes part in the prevention of tooth decay and the second one have an effect against non-Hodgkin-lymphoma(NHL) [2]. The following table demonstrates some IgA plantibodies which are generated in recent research. Plantibody Source Target Plantibody Characteristic sIgA/G Transgenic Tobacco Plant S. Mutans Prevention of tooth decay Human IgA Maize Herpes Simplex Virus and saga 1 antigen Herpes disease and sperm agglutination Coccidia specific chicken IgA Nocotiana Benthamiana Eimeria Acervulina Against the coccidiosis Virus-specific IgA Tomato and Nocotiana Benthamiana Rota Virus Development for passive immunisation against Diarrhoeal disease Chimeric Enterotoxigenic Bacteria-Specific IgA (VHH-IgA) Arabidopsis Thaliana seeds Enterotoxigenic Escherichia Coli (ETEC) Passive Mucosal Immunisation Against Enteric Infections Chimeric Toxic-Specific IgA (Hybrid IgG/IgA) A. Thaliana Shiga Toxin From ETEC Against Haemorrhagic colitis and Hemolytic-uremic Syndrome Monomeric IgA1 K! Variants (Infliximab, Adalimumab, Ustekinumab) N. Benthamiana Against Autoimmune disease 2G12 sIgA N. Benthamiana Human Immunodeficiency Virus Anti-HIV Human This table shows IgA plantibodies, their sources, targets and characteristics. Conclusion and future perspectives Although there are problems with the generation of plantibody from mammalian cells, but they are the most common source for production of mABs. This is due to the correct folding and similar glycosylation patterns to human, complex type N-glycosyl, moieties and the presence of polypeptides with disulfide bonds. Using recombinant antibody fragment in research therapeutic purposes, biotechnology and pharmaceutical science is increasing because of the intrinsic properties of the components such as the ability to penetrate better and detect antigen with higher affinity, small size and easy production compared to AB full size [6,13]. More powerful tissue or inducible promoters, enhancement of transcript stability, translational improvement with cutting edge sequences or strategies and transgenic chloroplast system are some ways which are studied in order to raise the AB expression level in plants in the future [8]. Drug production seems to be one of the promising field in terms of commerc ial development in biotechnology [1]. In total, we can see a promising future for the production of drugs, vaccine, recombinant protein and biopharmaceuticals from plants. However, several bottlenecks including regulatory guidelines, ethical issues and public approval must be taken into account and solved [1]. References: Hashemzadeh, H. and Zebarjadi, A. (2014). Application of transgenic plants as factories for producing biopharmaceutical. [online] www.researchgate.net. 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